Lateral avalanche photodetector

ABSTRACT

A lateral Ge/Si APD constructed on a silicon-on-insulator wafer includes a silicon device layer having regions that are doped to provide a lateral electric field and an avalanche region. A region having a modest doping level is in contact with a germanium body. There are no metal contacts made to the germanium body. The electrical contacts to the germanium body are made by way of the doped regions in the silicon device layer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/644,122, filed Mar. 10, 2015, which application claims priority to and the benefit of then co-pending U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/950,816, filed Mar. 10, 2014, each of which applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to photodetectors in general and particularly to an avalanche photodetector.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Avalanche photodetectors (APD) provide higher sensitivity than p-i-n photodetectors because of the internal gain from avalanche multiplication. APDs are useful in optical receivers for a number of applications. Due to the uncertainties of the total number of impact ionizations, there is amplitude noise on the avalanche gain. The noise is determined by avalanche multiplication material, characterized by the ionization rate ratio between electrons and holes, k. Similar ionization rate between electrons and holes, i.e., k≈1, corresponds to high noise, while low ionization rate between electrons and holes, i.e., k≈0 corresponds to low noise.

Silicon is transparent to the a set wavelengths used in optical fiber communication systems, 1.3 μm˜1.6 μm, so epitaxial germanium is typically used for light absorbing material in photodetectors in silicon photonics. However, germanium has a k close to 1, making it a noisy avalanche material. On the other hand, silicon has a very small k<0.1, which is preferable for avalanche. Thus, prior art APDs usually have separate absorption and multiplication regions, as shown in FIG. 1.

The electric field in different layers is illustrated in FIG. 2. In the absorption region, the electric field needs to be high enough to drive the photo-generated carriers at their drift saturation velocity, while low enough to avoid avalanche multiplication, which sets it in the 10 to 100 kV/cm range. In the avalanche region, the field needs to be high enough, greater than 300 kV/cm, for efficient multiplication.

The conventional prior art APD has a complicated layer structure, which requires multiple epitaxy and doping steps. Typically this type of geometry would be used for vertical incidence detection where light is traveling perpendicular to the plane of the chip. However, integrated optics require waveguide-coupled detectors in which the light is travelling in the plane of the chip. It is difficult to convert the conventional APD structure to work as a waveguide coupled device due to its numerous epitaxial steps.

There is a need for improved avalanche photodiode device structures that allow simpler and less costly fabrication.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to one aspect, the invention features a germanium (Ge) avalanche photodiode, comprising: a substrate having a silicon device layer on a surface thereof; a plurality of regions having different doping levels in the silicon device layer, the plurality of regions having different doping levels comprising, in order, a p⁺⁺ doped region, a first region having a modest doping level, a p+ doped region, a second region having a modest doping level, and an n⁺⁺ doped region; a germanium body adjacent the silicon device layer; a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the p⁺⁺ doped region; and a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the n⁺⁺ doped region.

In one embodiment, the substrate is a semiconductor wafer.

In one embodiment, the semiconductor wafer is a silicon-on-insulator wafer.

In one embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level has doping that is less than either the p⁺ doped region or the p⁺⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower than either the p⁺ doped region or the p⁺⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the germanium body is in electrical contact with at least one of the p⁺⁺ doped region, the first region having a modest doping level, and the p+ doped region.

In another embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level is an absorption region.

In yet another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level is an avalanche region.

In still another embodiment, the germanium body has a non-planar shape.

In a further embodiment, the germanium avalanche photodiode further comprises an oxide layer deposited over the germanium body.

According to another aspect, the invention relates to an improved germanium avalanche photodiode including a semiconductor wafer having a silicon device layer on a surface thereof, a plurality of regions having different doping levels laterally disposed in the silicon device layer, and a germanium body; wherein the improvement comprises: the plurality of regions having different doping levels laterally disposed in the silicon device layer comprising, in order, a p⁺⁺ doped region, a first region having a modest doping level, a p+ doped region, a second region having a modest doping level, and an n⁺⁺ doped region; the a germanium body adjacent the silicon device layer; a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the p⁺⁺ doped region; and a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the n⁺⁺ doped region.

In one embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the germanium body is in electrical contact with at least one of the p⁺⁺ doped region, the first region having a modest doping level, and the p+ doped region.

According to another aspect, the invention relates to a method of making a germanium avalanche photodiode. The method comprises the steps of: providing a semiconductor wafer having a silicon device layer on a surface thereof; creating a plurality of regions having different doping levels in the silicon device layer, the plurality of regions having different doping levels comprising, in order, a p⁺⁺ doped region, a first region having a modest doping level, a p+ doped region, a second region having a modest doping level, and an n⁺⁺ doped region; depositing a germanium body adjacent the silicon device layer; providing a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the p⁺⁺ doped region; and providing a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the n⁺⁺ doped region.

In one embodiment, the method of making a germanium avalanche photodiode further comprises the step of depositing an oxide layer over the germanium body.

In another embodiment, the semiconductor wafer is a silicon-on-insulator wafer.

In yet another embodiment, the germanium body has a non-planar shape.

In another embodiment, the germanium body is in electrical contact with at least one of the p⁺⁺ doped region, the first region having a modest doping level, and the p+ doped region.

In one embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

According to another aspect, the invention relates to a method of operating a germanium avalanche photodiode, the germanium avalanche photodiode comprising a semiconductor wafer having a silicon device layer on a surface thereof; a plurality of regions having different doping levels in the silicon device layer, the plurality of regions having different doping levels comprising, in order, a p⁺⁺ doped region, a first region having a modest doping level, a p+ doped region, a second region having a modest doping level, and an n⁺⁺ doped region; a germanium body adjacent the silicon device layer; a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the p⁺⁺ doped region; and a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the n⁺⁺ doped region; the method comprising the steps of: illuminating the germanium body with electromagnetic radiation having an intensity; and measuring an electrical signal at the first and second electrical terminals, the electrical signal representative of the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation.

In one embodiment, the electrical signal is amplified by an avalanche process.

In another embodiment, the substrate is a silicon-on-insulator wafer.

In yet another embodiment, the germanium body has a non-planar shape.

In another embodiment, the germanium body is in electrical contact with at least one of the p⁺⁺ doped region, the first region having a modest doping level, and the p+ doped region.

In one embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

According to one aspect, the invention features a germanium avalanche photodiode, comprising: a substrate having a surface; a germanium body adjacent the surface; a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the germanium body by way of a first surface region of the surface; and a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the germanium body by way of a second surface region of the surface.

In one embodiment, the substrate is a semiconductor wafer.

In another embodiment, the semiconductor wafer is a silicon-on-insulator wafer that has a silicon device layer on the surface thereof.

In still another embodiment, a plurality of regions having different doping levels in the silicon device layer comprise, in order, a p⁺⁺ doped region, a first region having a modest doping level, a p+ doped region, a second region having a modest doping level, and an n⁺⁺ doped region.

In one embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In another embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level has doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region or the p⁺ doped region.

In a further embodiment, the germanium body is in electrical contact with at least one of the p⁺⁺ doped region, the first region having a modest doping level, and the p+ doped region.

In yet a further embodiment, the first region having a modest doping level is an absorption region.

In an additional embodiment, the second region having a modest doping level is an avalanche region.

In one more embodiment, the first surface region of the surface is the p⁺⁺ doped region of the silicon device layer.

In still a further embodiment, the second surface region of the surface is the n⁺⁺ doped region of the silicon device layer.

In one embodiment, the germanium body has a non-planar shape.

In another embodiment, the germanium avalanche photodiode further comprises an oxide layer deposited over the germanium body.

The foregoing and other objects, aspects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following description and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The objects and features of the invention can be better understood with reference to the drawings described below, and the claims. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. In the drawings, like numerals are used to indicate like parts throughout the various views.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a conventional prior art vertical Ge/Si APD.

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the electrical field strength in different layers of an APD.

FIG. 3 is a cross sectional diagram of a lateral Ge/Si APD according to principles of the invention.

FIG. 4 is a graph of observed photocurrent current vs. voltage and dark current vs. voltage for a sample device constructed and operated according to principles of the invention.

FIG. 5 is a graph of observed S₁₂ parameter vs. frequency for a device constructed and operated according to principles of the invention.

FIG. 6 is a cross sectional diagram of an alternative embodiment of a lateral Ge APD according to principles of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Acronyms

A list of acronyms and their usual meanings in the present document (unless otherwise explicitly stated to denote a different thing) are presented below.

AMR Adabatic Micro-Ring

APD Avalanche Photodetector

ARM Anti-Reflection Microstructure

ASE Amplified Spontaneous Emission

BER Bit Error Rate

BOX Buried Oxide

CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

CMP Chemical-Mechanical Planarization

DBR Distributed Bragg Reflector

DC (optics) Directional Coupler

DC (electronics) Direct Current

DCA Digital Communication Analyzer

DRC Design Rule Checking

DUT Device Under Test

ECL External Cavity Laser

FDTD Finite Difference Time Domain

FOM Figure of Merit

FSR Free Spectral Range

FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum

GaAs Gallium Arsenide

InP Indium Phosphide

LiNO₃ Lithium Niobate

LIV Light intensity(L)-Current(I)-Voltage(V)

MFD Mode Field Diameter

MPW Multi Project Wafer

NRZ Non-Return to Zero

PIC Photonic Integrated Circuits

PRBS Pseudo Random Bit Sequence

PDFA Praseodymium-Doped-Fiber-Amplifier

PSO Particle Swarm Optimization

Q Quality factor

$Q = {{2\pi \times \frac{{Energy}\mspace{14mu} {Stored}}{{Energy}\mspace{14mu} {dissipated}\mspace{14mu} {per}\mspace{14mu} {cycle}}} = {2\pi \; f_{r} \times {\frac{{Energy}\mspace{14mu} {Stored}}{{Power}\mspace{14mu} {Loss}}.}}}$

QD Quantum Dot

RSOA Reflective Semiconductor Optical Amplifier

SOI Silicon on Insulator

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

SMF Single Mode Fiber

SMSR Single-Mode Suppression Ratio

TEC Thermal Electric Cooler

WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing

We device structure that achieves the same avalanche photodetector function that is found in prior art APDs, but can be easily integrated with waveguides attached to photonic integrated circuits. The electric field in the device is in the plane of the wafer, rather than orthogonal to the wafer. The device structure is compatible with typical silicon photonics process flows. No Ge doping or Metal-Ge direct contact is required. Since the doped regions are fabricated in silicon, in common with those used for fabricating silicon optical modulators, compared to a pure modulator flow, the only significant extra step that is required is germanium epitaxy.

FIG. 3 is a cross sectional diagram of a lateral Ge/Si APD according to principles of the invention. As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 3 a silicon-on-insulator wafer is used to provide a silicon substrate 302. A buried oxide (BOX) layer 304 is present in contact with the silicon substrate. A silicon device layer 320 is present in contact with the BOX 304 layer. In the silicon device layer 320, there are regions that are doped. A p⁺⁺ doped region 321 is provided, as illustrated in FIG. 3. Adjacent the p⁺⁺ doped region 321 is a region 322 having a modest doping level. In the silicon device layer 320 adjacent the region 322 is a p+ doped region 323. In the silicon device layer 320 adjacent the p+ doped region 323 is a region 324 having a modest doping level. In the silicon device layer 320 adjacent the region 324 is an n⁺⁺ doped region 325. In some embodiments, the p+ doping is of the order of 1E15 to 1E17 per cubic centimeter. In some embodiments, both p++ and n++ doping are greater 1E18 per cubic centimeter. In other embodiments, the device of the invention can be fabricated on a substrate, such as a semiconductor wafer, or a substrate made from other materials that are not semiconductors, such as quartz, aluminum oxide, sapphire, and the like.

The germanium body 306 is deposited adjacent the silicon device layer 320, for example by epitaxy after all of the doped regions in the silicon device layer 320 are completed. In some embodiments, the region 321 is in electrical contact with the germanium body 306. In some embodiments, the region 322 is in contact electrical with the germanium body 306. In some embodiments, the region 323 is in electrical contact with the germanium body 306. In other embodiments, the germanium body 306 is not in mechanical contact with either or both of regions 321 and 323. The discussion of how the germanium body 306 may be fabricated is described in further detail in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/644,122.

In some embodiments, the regions having a modest doping level may have additional doping added simply as an artifact of the doping of nearby, or adjacent, regions. This additional doping may come about by inaccuracies in locating a dopant deposition or implantation or by diffusion of dopant during an annealing, activation or heat treatment step in the course of ordinary semiconductor processing. In some embodiments, a region having a modest doping level can have an effective doping that is lower than either the p⁺⁺ doped region 321 or the p⁺ doped region 323. In some embodiments, a region having a modest doping level can have an effective doping that is lower by approximately one order of magnitude than either the p⁺⁺ doped region 321 or the p⁺ doped region 323. In some embodiments, the p-type dopant is boron (B). In some embodiments, the n-type dopants are one or more of phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb).

An oxide layer 308 is provided that covers the silicon device layer 320 and the germanium body 306. There are no metal contacts made to the germanium body 306. The electrical contacts to the germanium body 306 are made by way of the p⁺⁺ doped region 321 on one side and by way of the p⁺ doped region 323, the region 324 and the n⁺⁺ doped region 325 on the other side. A voltage is applied to the device such that the electrons that are generated in the Ge body are allowed to move into the region 322, and then to the avalanche region 324, while the holes that are generated in the Ge body are allowed to move to the p++ region 321. Aluminum conductors 310 and 312 are provided to connect the p⁺⁺ doped region 321 with a p terminal 311 and the n⁺⁺ doped region 325 with an n terminal 313, respectively, so that the electrical signal generated in the APD can be observed or used. In some embodiments, the conductors 310 and 312 can be fabricated using metals other than aluminum, for example, Cu, W or other common conductor metals.

The device shown in FIG. 3 keeps separate the absorption region (in the germanium) and the multiplication region (in the silicon device layer) for low noise APD behavior. Moreover, the germanium crystal quality is preserved as produced by epitaxy, free from degradation which would be caused by ion implantation or metal contacting.

During germanium epitaxy, the growth rate is different at different crystal orientations. Growth in the <311> crystallographic direction may be slower than growth in the <100> crystallographic direction, thus a triangular (or non-planar) shape may be formed. As used herein, the < > notation is used to identify a family of equivalent directions (i.e., <100> includes the [100] direction, the [010] direction, the [001] direction and their opposite directions, such as [−100]).

The steps used to fabricate the device are to first produce all of the regions 321, 322, 323, 324 and 325 in the silicon device layer, and then provide the oxide layer 308. The Ge body 306 can be deposited in an aperture produced in the oxide layer 308. One or more layers can be deposited over the Ge body to provide mechanical protection and/or optical coatings, such as anti-reflection coatings. The metallization can then be applied.

Alternative Embodiments

FIG. 6 is a cross sectional diagram of an alternative embodiment of a lateral Ge APD according to principles of the invention.

As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 6 a substrate 602 is provided. A silicon device layer 620 is present in contact with the substrate 602. In the silicon device layer 620, there are regions that are doped. A p⁺⁺ doped region 621 is provided, as illustrated in FIG. 6. Adjacent the p⁺⁺ doped region 621 is a region 622 in which a modest doping level is introduced into the silicon device layer. In the silicon device layer 620 adjacent the region 622 is a p+ doped region 623. In the silicon device layer 620 adjacent the p+ doped region 623 is a region 624 in which a modest doping level is introduced into the silicon device layer. In the silicon device layer 620 adjacent the region 624 is an n⁺⁺ doped region 625. In some embodiments, the p+ doping is of the order of 1E15 to 1E17 per cubic centimeter. In some embodiments, both p++ and n++ doping are greater 1E18 per cubic centimeter. In other embodiments, the device of the invention can be fabricated on a substrate, such as a semiconductor wafer, or a substrate made from other materials that are not semiconductors, such as quartz, aluminum oxide, sapphire, and the like.

The germanium body 606 is deposited adjacent the silicon device layer 620, for example by epitaxy after all of the doped regions in the silicon device layer 620 are completed. In some embodiments, the region 621 is in electrical contact with the germanium body 606. In some embodiments, the region 622 is in contact electrical with the germanium body 606. In some embodiments, the region 623 is in electrical contact with the germanium body 606. In other embodiments, the germanium body 606 is not in mechanical contact with either or both of regions 621 and 623. The discussion of how the germanium body 606 may be fabricated is described in further detail in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/644,122.

As used herein, the term “a modest doping level” is intended to denote a level of doping that is present in the silicon device layer 620 before any additional doping is deliberately added during processing. In some embodiments, the regions having a modest doping level may in fact have additional doping added simply as an artifact of the doping of nearby, or adjacent, regions. This additional doping may come about by inaccuracies in locating a dopant deposition or implantation or by diffusion of dopant during an annealing, activation or heat treatment step in the course of ordinary semiconductor processing. In some embodiments, a region having a modest doping level can have doping that is lower than either the p⁺⁺ doped region 621 or the p⁺ doped region 623. In some embodiments, the p-type dopant is boron (B). In some embodiments, the n-type dopants are one or more of phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb). In other embodiments, the n++, p+ or p++ regions can be counter-doped such that an n-type dopant is used in a majority p-type region or a p-type dopant is used in a majority n-type region.

An oxide layer 608 is provided that covers the silicon device layer 620 and the germanium body 606. There are no metal contacts made to the germanium body 606. The electrical contacts to the germanium body 606 are made by way of the p⁺⁺ doped region 621 on one side and by way of the p⁺ doped region 623, the region 624 and the n⁺⁺ doped region 625 on the other side. A voltage is applied to the device such that the electrons that are generated in the Ge body are allowed to move into the region 622, and then to the avalanche region 624, while the holes that are generated in the Ge body are allowed to move to the p++ region 621. Aluminum conductors 610 and 612 are provided to connect the p⁺⁺ doped region 621 with a p terminal 611 and the n⁺⁺ doped region 625 with an n terminal 613, respectively, so that the electrical signal generated in the APD can be observed or used. In some embodiments, the conductors 610 and 612 can be fabricated using metals other than aluminum, for example, Cu, W or other common conductor metals.

The device shown in FIG. 6 keeps separate the absorption region (in the germanium) and the multiplication region (in the silicon device layer) for low noise APD behavior. Moreover, the germanium crystal quality is preserved as produced by epitaxy, free from degradation which would be caused by ion implantation or metal contacting.

The steps used to fabricate the device are to first produce all of the regions 621, 622, 623, 624 and 625 in the silicon device layer, and then provide the oxide layer 608. The Ge body 606 can be deposited in an aperture produced in the oxide layer 608. One or more layers can be deposited over the Ge body to provide mechanical protection and/or optical coatings, such as anti-reflection coatings. The metallization can then be applied.

In one embodiment, the Ge body has one or more metal contacts that may conduct current. In another embodiment, the Ge body is doped. In another embodiment, the silicon device layer is partially etched in selected regions. In one embodiment, the Ge body contains, at least partially, a compound containing at least two of silicon, germanium, carbon and tin. In another embodiment, the Ge body is grown using liquid phase epitaxy. In another embodiment, the doping regions are rounded to avoid sharp corners. In another embodiment, the Ge body is rounded to avoid sharp corners. In a further embodiment, the Ge body is grown on partially etched silicon. In a further embodiment, light is incident on the detector from multiple sides. In various embodiments, the germanium is grown using any convenient chemical vapor deposition technique, including, by way of example, ultra high vacuum CVD (UHV-CVD), metallo-organic CVD (MOCVD), plasma enhanced CVD (PEVCD), atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), low pressure CVD (LPCVD), rapid thermal; CVD (RTCVD) and reduced pressure CVD (RPCVD). In some embodiments, the silicon substrate is doped prior to device fabrication. In various embodiments, the doped regions comprise multiple implants and/or diffusions. In some embodiments, the doped regions vary in doping intensity, for example, being linearly doped. In some embodiments, the doping concentration varies as a function of depth in the silicon. In some embodiments, the dopants are counter-doped using an alternative species. In some embodiments, the Ge body is single crystal or polycrystalline. In some embodiments, the Ge body has a buffer layer (e.g. SiGe, amorphous Ge, SiN) between the silicon device layer and the main Ge body.

Device Operation

In some embodiments, the device will be operated by sending an optical signal to the device's input port. A bias voltage will then be applied across the electrical ports. A larger voltage will result in a larger responsivity and a higher gain. However, a large enough bias voltage will cause avalanche breakdown in which the avalanche process is in a critical regime during which the current is very high and the bandwidth and noise performance are degraded. Electrical controls can be used to operate the avalanche detector at a voltage chosen to maximize performance. The chosen regime may also be a function of the optical input power. Lower input power generally requires a higher gain. The current that flows out of the terminals is then detected.

The device may also be operated in “Geiger mode”, in which the voltage is intentionally increased to be in the breakdown regime. In this mode of operation, a single photon will trigger a self-sustaining current that must then be quenched by some type of circuitry to reset the detector. This mode is efficient at detecting single photons.

The avalanche mechanism is sensitive to temperature. Thus a thermal control may be used with the detector. In some embodiments, the substrate on which the detector sits may be placed onto a thermo-electric cooler. In some embodiments, a heater may be integrated into the detector structure for maximally efficient thermal control. Some embodiments may utilize a heater or a thermoelectric cooler in order to adjust the bandgap energy of the photodetector absorption region. Some embodiments may utilize this heater or thermoelectric cooler in order to control the absorption of the photodetector as a function of input wavelength. Some embodiments may utilize this heater or thermoelectric cooler in order to stabilize the gain or breakdown voltage of the photodetector. Some embodiments may include both a cooler and a heater, which may be operated alone or together, so as to control a range of operation of the device (e.g., the heater operates if the device temperature falls below a lower threshold, and the cooler operates if the device temperature rises above an upper threshold, with the other of the heater or the cooler turned off when the temperature is above the lower threshold and below the upper threshold, respectively).

FIG. 4 is a graph of observed photocurrent current vs. voltage and dark current vs. voltage for a sample device that was constructed and operated. In FIG. 4, the current vs. voltage curves 410, 420 and 430 are shown. As one can see, the device that produced the curve 420 clearly generated photocurrent in the avalanche photodiode's reverse bias regime. Avalanche gain is apparent in curve 420 near −30 V. The dark current vs. voltage curve 410 shows that this device has relatively low dark current relative to the photocurrent with less than 1 μA of dark current at −30 V.

FIG. 5 is a graph of an observed S₁₂ parameter vs. frequency for a device constructed and operated according to principles of the invention. The S₁₂ is a measure of the electro-optic frequency response of the photodetector. In FIG. 5, the horizontal line 510 indicates normalized response power I, and the horizontal line 530 indicates a response power that would be reduced from I by −3 dB. The observed curve 520 shows that the −3 dB frequency is greater than one GHz (e.g., in the vicinity of 1.6 GHz for the specific device that was measured).

Design and Fabrication

Methods of designing and fabricating devices having elements similar to those described herein are described in one or more of U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,200,308, 7,339,724, 7,424,192, 7,480,434, 7,643,714, 7,760,970, 7,894,696, 8,031,985, 8,067,724, 8,098,965, 8,203,115, 8,237,102, 8,258,476, 8,270,778, 8,280,211, 8,311,374, 8,340,486, 8,380,016, 8,390,922, 8,798,406, and 8,818,141, each of which documents is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

See also the description given in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/644,122, filed Mar. 10, 2015, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Definitions

As used herein, the term “optical communication channel” is intended to denote a single optical channel, such as light that can carry information using a specific carrier wavelength in a wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) system.

As used herein, the term “optical carrier” is intended to denote a medium or a structure through which any number of optical signals including WDM signals can propagate, which by way of example can include gases such as air, a void such as a vacuum or extraterrestrial space, and structures such as optical fibers and optical waveguides.

Theoretical Discussion

Although the theoretical description given herein is thought to be correct, the operation of the devices described and claimed herein does not depend upon the accuracy or validity of the theoretical description. That is, later theoretical developments that may explain the observed results on a basis different from the theory presented herein will not detract from the inventions described herein.

Any patent, patent application, patent application publication, journal article, book, published paper, or other publicly available material identified in the specification is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Any material, or portion thereof, that is said to be incorporated by reference herein, but which conflicts with existing definitions, statements, or other disclosure material explicitly set forth herein is only incorporated to the extent that no conflict arises between that incorporated material and the present disclosure material. In the event of a conflict, the conflict is to be resolved in favor of the present disclosure as the preferred disclosure.

While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to the preferred mode as illustrated in the drawing, it will be understood by one skilled in the art that various changes in detail may be affected therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the claims. 

1-41. (canceled)
 42. An avalanche photodiode, comprising: a substrate; a device layer comprising a plurality of regions on the substrate; a light-absorbing body adjacent said device layer; a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with said light-absorbing body by way of a first plurality of the regions of said device layer; and a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with said light-absorbing body by way of a second plurality of regions of said device layer wherein the regions in said device layer comprise: a first region below the first electrical terminal including a first level of p or n doping, a second region below the light-absorbing body comprising an absorption region, a third region including a same kind of doping as the first region, but at a second level of doping, less than said first level of doping, a fourth region comprising a multiplication region, and a fifth region below the second electrical terminal including a third level of doping, opposite in kind to the first and third regions.
 43. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said second region includes a doping level that is lower than either said first or third regions.
 44. The avalanche photodiode of claim 43, wherein said second region includes a doping level that is lower than either said first or third regions by approximately an order of magnitude.
 45. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said fourth region includes a doping level that is lower than either said first or third regions.
 46. The avalanche photodiode of claim 45, wherein said fourth region includes a doping level that is lower than either said first or third regions by approximately an order of magnitude.
 47. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body is in electrical contact with at least one of said first, second and third regions.
 48. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body is in electrical contact said second region, and not in mechanical contact with first or third regions.
 49. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body comprises a material with a ionization rate of approximately
 1. 50. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body comprises germanium.
 51. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body comprises an intrinsic germanium body.
 52. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body includes doping.
 53. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said device layer comprises a material with an ionization rate of less than 0.1.
 54. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said device layer comprises silicon.
 55. The avalanche photodiode of claim 52, wherein said substrate comprises a semiconductor wafer.
 56. The avalanche photodiode of claim 55, wherein said semiconductor wafer comprises a silicon-on-insulator wafer including the silicon device layer.
 57. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, wherein said light-absorbing body comprises a triangular shape.
 58. The avalanche photodiode of claim 42, further comprising a buffer layer between said light-absorbing body and said device layer comprising at least one of SiGe, amorphous Ge, and SiN.
 59. A method of making an avalanche photodiode comprising: providing a semiconductor wafer having a device layer; creating a plurality of regions having different doping levels in the device layer, the plurality of regions having different doping levels comprising: a first region including a first level of p or n doping, a second-region, comprising an absorption region, a third region including a second level of p or n doping, less than said first level of doping but a same kind, a fourth region comprising a multiplication region, and a fifth region including a third level of doping, opposite in kind to the first and third regions; depositing a light-absorbing body over the second region; providing a first electrical terminal in electrical communication with the first region; and providing a second electrical terminal in electrical communication with the fifth region.
 60. The method of claim 59, wherein said second and fourth regions includes a doping level that is lower than either said first or third regions. 